1 Introduction

Microbial decomposition is a critical ecological process in ecosystems, primarily carried out by fungi and bacteria, involving the breakdown of organic matter and nutrient cycling. This process plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem health, whether in soil, leaf litter, or aquatic environments, by releasing nutrients that support plant growth and maintain soil structural stability (Bani et al., 2018; Hicks et al., 2021; Tláskal et al., 2021). However, decomposition is not merely a simple breakdown process; it involves complex biological and chemical reactions influenced by environmental factors and substrate quality, driven by dynamically changing microbial communities (Purahong et al., 2016).

The impact of decomposition on ecosystems is not only reflected in its contribution to nutrient cycling but also in its importance in maintaining the balance of biogeochemical cycles. The decomposition process releases key nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which support plant growth and maintain soil fertility (Metcalf et al., 2016; Maron et al., 2018; Arias-Real et al., 2019). In forest ecosystems, the decomposition of leaf litter and deadwood not only prevents soil erosion but also stabilizes the local climate and provides habitats for various organisms, maintaining the diversity and functionality of the ecosystem (Bani et al., 2018). Moreover, decomposition contributes to the global carbon cycle by releasing carbon dioxide (CO2), which is significant for understanding climate change dynamics (Tláskal et al., 2021; Manzoni et al., 2023).

The intensification of human activities, such as land-use changes and pollution, can significantly impact microbial decomposition functions, thereby affecting nutrient balance in ecosystems. For example, temperature and humidity changes brought about by climate change directly influence microbial activity, thereby altering decomposition rates (Metcalf et al., 2016). As global warming continues, rising temperatures may accelerate decomposition in some regions, leading to rapid carbon release and further increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere (Tláskal et al., 2021). However, in extreme environments, rising temperatures may inhibit microbial activity, slowing decomposition and adding complexity to ecosystem response prediction and management (Manzoni et al., 2023).

Microbial decomposition in aquatic ecosystems is also of great importance. Decomposers in freshwater and marine environments break down organic matter, support nutrient cycling in the water, and directly affect water quality. Overactive decomposition processes may lead to rapid oxygen consumption, creating "dead zones" that threaten the survival of aquatic life (Tláskal et al., 2021). Furthermore, decomposition in water bodies is closely related to the global carbon cycle, influencing the release and absorption of dissolved organic carbon and indirectly affecting atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (Bani et al., 2018).

Despite many research achievements, many aspects of the microbial decomposition process still require further exploration. This study reviews current research on microbial decomposition and its impact on ecosystem health, discussing the roles of different microbial communities in decomposition, analyzing the environmental factors influencing decomposition rates, and assessing the role of decomposition in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning. By identifying gaps in research and proposing future directions, this study aims to provide theoretical support for further understanding the mechanisms of microbial decomposition and its critical role in ecosystem health.

2 Microbial Decomposition Processes

Microbial decomposition is a complex process influenced by the interplay of microbial foraging strategies, community composition, substrate quality, and environmental conditions. Understanding these factors is essential for predicting carbon and nutrient cycling in ecosystems and managing soil health effectively.

2.1 Mechanisms of Microbial Decomposition

Microbial decomposition is a critical process in ecosystems, driving the transformation of organic matter into simpler compounds, which are then cycled back into the environment. The kinetics of decomposition are influenced by microbial foraging strategies, where microbes optimize their growth rates based on substrate availability. This process can be modeled as an optimal control problem, where the decomposition rate is a control variable that scales with the substrate concentration (Manzoni et al., 2023). Additionally, microbial communities adapt to environmental conditions, modulating decomposition rates through changes in their metabolic activities and enzyme production (Brabcová et al., 2016; Burešová et al., 2019).

2.2 Types of Decomposer Microbes

Decomposer microbes can be broadly categorized into bacteria and fungi, each playing distinct roles in the decomposition process. Bacteria are typically associated with the rapid turnover of easily degradable substrates, while fungi are more efficient at breaking down complex organic matter such as lignin and cellulose (Baldrian, 2017; Hicks et al., 2021). Specific microbial communities, including genera like Pedobacter, Pseudomonas, and Aspergillus, are associated with different stages of decomposition, highlighting the niche differentiation among decomposer species (Brabcová et al., 2016; Bhatnagar et al., 2018). The composition of these communities can vary significantly with environmental conditions, such as soil contact and moisture levels, which influence the relative abundance of bacterial and fungal decomposers (Gora et al., 2019).

2.3 Factors Influencing Decomposition Rates

Multiple factors influence the rate of microbial decomposition, including substrate quality, environmental conditions, and the composition of microbial communities. Substrate quality, which refers to the chemical composition of organic matter, plays a crucial role in determining which microbial species become active decomposers. For example, high-quality carbon substrates do not necessarily favor bacterial decomposers over fungi, as both groups of microbes can increase their growth rates with better substrate quality (Hicks et al., 2021). Environmental conditions such as soil nutrient content, moisture, and temperature also significantly affect decomposition rates. The diversity and functional capabilities of microbial communities are also critical, as different species possess unique metabolic pathways and enzyme systems that contribute to the overall decomposition process (Crowther et al., 2019; Mason et al., 2023). In different microenvironments (e.g., soil, skin, and internal organs), these microbes break down complex organic compounds, controlling the fate of carbon and nutrients, thereby impacting ecosystem health and function (Figure 1). Additionally, nutrient-rich soils can enhance microbial activity and enzyme production, accelerating the decomposition process (Burešová et al., 2019; Raczka et al., 2021).

Figure 1 New ICT based fertility management model in private dairy farm India as well as abroad

Mason et al. (2023) study illustrates the microbial community succession in different microenvironments during vertebrate decomposition. The microbial communities exhibit significant changes over time as decomposition progresses. This figure clearly demonstrates how microbial decomposers release nutrients and other compounds into the environment during the breakdown of organic matter, thereby influencing biogeochemical cycles and overall ecosystem health. It serves as an important reference for studying the role of microbial decomposition in different microenvironments.

3 Decomposer Microbes and Their Roles

3.1 Bacteria

Bacteria play a crucial role in the decomposition process, particularly in the breakdown of simpler organic compounds and the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen. They are essential in the decomposition of fungal mycelia and contribute significantly to nitrogen-cycle processes, including nitrogen fixation. Bacterial communities are highly dynamic and can rapidly respond to changes in environmental conditions and substrate availability. For instance, in the decomposition of leaf litter, bacterial communities undergo significant shifts in composition and abundance, with Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes being dominant groups (Purahong et al., 2016). Additionally, bacteria are involved in the decomposition of agricultural wastes, where they contribute to the formation of compost and enhance the diversity and function of microbial communities (Simarmata et al., 2021).

3.2 Fungi

Fungi are considered the primary decomposers of complex plant biomass, such as litter and deadwood, due to their ability to produce specific enzymes that break down recalcitrant organic matter (Baldrian, 2017). They play a pivotal role in forest ecosystems by decomposing leaf litter and deadwood, which are critical processes in biogeochemical cycles (Bani et al., 2018). Fungi also exhibit a succession of different taxa during decomposition, with ascomycete fungi being replaced by basidiomycetes as decomposition progresses (Purahong et al., 2016). Early-diverging fungi have been instrumental in shaping terrestrial ecosystems by interacting with plants and modifying the Earth's atmosphere (Berbee et al., 2017). Their ability to access new substrates through hyphae and produce powerful carbohydrate-active enzymes makes them indispensable in the decomposition process.

3.3 Actinomycetes

Actinomycetes, a group of filamentous bacteria, are also significant contributors to the decomposition process. They are particularly effective in breaking down complex organic compounds, such as cellulose and lignin, which are abundant in plant biomass. Actinomycetes are known for their ability to produce a wide range of extracellular enzymes that facilitate the degradation of these complex molecules (Purahong et al., 2016). Their presence in decomposing leaf litter highlights their role in the microbial succession and their contribution to nutrient cycling and soil health. Actinomycetes, along with other bacterial groups, form part of the intricate microbial networks that drive the decomposition process and maintain ecosystem health.

Bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes each play distinct yet interconnected roles in the decomposition of organic matter. Bacteria are crucial for nutrient cycling and the decomposition of simpler compounds, fungi are the primary agents for breaking down complex plant materials, and actinomycetes contribute to the degradation of recalcitrant organic compounds. Together, these microbial groups ensure the efficient recycling of nutrients and the maintenance of ecosystem health.

4 Environmental Factors Affecting Decomposition

4.1 Temperature

Temperature is a critical factor influencing the rate of microbial decomposition of organic matter. Numerous studies have demonstrated that higher temperatures generally accelerate decomposition processes by enhancing microbial activity and enzyme function. For instance, research has shown that decomposition rates are significantly higher at elevated temperatures, provided that sufficient moisture and oxygen are available (Sierra et al., 2017). Additionally, temperature sensitivity of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition, expressed as the Q10 value, increases with rising temperatures, indicating a higher rate of decomposition with a 10°C increase in temperature (Wang et al., 2016). However, extreme temperatures can also have inhibitory effects. For example, high temperatures may reduce the heat capacity of extracellular enzymes or lead to moisture deficits, both of which can slow down decomposition (Sierra et al., 2017). Furthermore, temperature-driven changes in invertebrate communities can also impact decomposition rates, as higher temperatures have been found to reduce invertebrate abundance and diversity, thereby slowing down the decomposition process (Figueroa et al., 2021).

4.2 Moisture

Soil moisture is another pivotal factor affecting decomposition rates. Moisture availability influences microbial activity by affecting substrate supply and oxygen concentration, which are essential for microbial respiration and enzyme activity (Sierra et al., 2015). Studies have shown that decomposition rates are highest at optimal moisture levels and decline when soil becomes either too dry or too saturated (Sierra et al., 2017). For instance, in boreal forest soils, decomposition rates were found to be high at high moisture levels, provided that oxygen was not limiting (Sierra et al., 2017). Similarly, research conducted along elevation gradients in Northeast China demonstrated that soil moisture significantly influences SOM decomposition rates, with higher moisture levels generally promoting faster decomposition (Wang et al., 2016). The interaction between temperature and moisture is also crucial, as the effects of temperature on decomposition can be modulated by soil moisture levels (Petraglia et al., 2018).

4.3 pH levels

Soil pH is a key factor that influences microbial community composition and activity, thereby affecting decomposition rates. The pH of the soil can alter the availability of nutrients and the activity of decomposing microorganisms. For example, studies have shown that soil pH can significantly impact microbial response during decomposition, with certain pH levels favoring specific microbial communities (Mason et al., 2022). In the context of human decomposition, variations in soil pH were found to be influenced by intrinsic factors such as body mass index (BMI), which in turn affected microbial activity and decomposition rates. Additionally, in aquatic ecosystems, pH levels along with other abiotic factors like temperature and ionic concentration were found to influence microbial decomposition and enzyme activity, further highlighting the importance of pH in decomposition processes (Fenoy et al., 2016).

5 Impact of Microbial Decomposition on Soil Health

Microbial decomposition is fundamental to nutrient cycling, soil structure, fertility, and the suppression of soil-borne diseases. The interplay between microbial communities and environmental factors such as nitrogen fertilization, agricultural practices, and fire events significantly impacts soil health and ecosystem functioning.

5.1 Nutrient cycling

5.1.1 Carbon cycle

Microbial decomposition plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle by breaking down organic matter and releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Soil microbes, including bacteria and fungi, are essential for the transformation and processing of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems. Nitrogen fertilization has been shown to significantly alter soil microbial community composition, which in turn affects soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover and nutrient acquisition (Li et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2020). Additionally, agricultural practices, such as organic and conventional management, influence microbial communities and their ability to decompose crop residues, impacting soil carbon accrual and fertility (Arcand et al., 2016). Fire events also reorganize microbially-mediated nutrient cycles, including carbon, by decreasing soil enzyme activities and microbial biomass (Zhou et al., 2022).

5.1.2 Nitrogen cycle

Microbial activity is integral to the nitrogen cycle, facilitating processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification. Long-term nitrogen fertilization experiments have demonstrated that nitrogen input significantly modifies both bacterial and fungal community compositions, enhancing the potential for nitrogen acquisition and recalcitrant carbon degradation. However, nitrogen enrichment can decrease microbial biomass and diversity, potentially weakening the linkage between soil carbon and microbial diversity, which is critical for maintaining ecosystem services (Yang et al., 2022). In tropical forests, nitrogen limitation alongside phosphorus limitation has been identified as a key factor affecting microbial processes and soil health (Camenzind et al., 2018).

5.1.3 Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus is another essential nutrient cycled by soil microbes. Studies have shown that phosphorus limitation is prevalent in tropical forests, significantly affecting microbial biomass and process rates (Camenzind et al., 2018). Fire events can decrease soil phosphorus-acquiring enzyme activities but increase available phosphorus through pyro-mineralization, altering the phosphorus cycle (Zhou et al., 2022). In paddy soils, the addition of biogas slurry has been found to shift microbial phosphorus-transformation communities, highlighting the importance of microbial mediation in phosphorus cycling (Wang et al., 2021).

5.2 Soil structure and fertility

Microbial decomposition directly influences soil structure and fertility by breaking down organic matter and contributing to the formation of soil aggregates. The activity of soil microbes and their extracellular enzymes is crucial for maintaining soil physical and chemical properties. Nitrogen enrichment, for example, has been shown to significantly alter soil properties, affecting microbial biomass and enzyme activities, which are essential for soil fertility (Jia et al., 2020). The management of agricultural practices, such as the use of organic amendments, can also impact microbial communities and their role in maintaining soil structure and fertility (Arcand et al., 2016).

5.3 Suppression of soil-borne diseases

Microbial decomposition can suppress soil-borne diseases by enhancing the diversity and activity of beneficial soil microbes. These microbes compete with or inhibit pathogenic organisms, thereby promoting plant health. The composition of soil microbial communities, influenced by factors such as nitrogen fertilization and organic amendments, plays a critical role in disease suppression. For instance, nitrogen fertilization can alter microbial community dynamics, potentially affecting the suppression of soil-borne diseases (Li et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2020). Additionally, the application of biogas slurry in paddy soils has been shown to regulate microbial communities and functional gene expression, which can influence the suppression of soil-borne diseases (Wang et al., 2021).

6 Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems

6.1 Role of decomposers in freshwater systems

Decomposition in freshwater ecosystems is a critical process driven by a variety of microbial communities, including fungi and bacteria. Fungi, particularly aquatic hyphomycetes, play a significant role in the turnover of organic matter and are central to detrital food webs. These fungi are responsible for breaking down leaf litter, which is a major source of energy and nutrients in forested freshwater systems (Pimentão et al., 2019; Pérez et al., 2021). The complexity of decomposer communities, including microbes and invertebrates, significantly influences the rate of litter decomposition, with factors such as litter quality and environmental conditions (e.g., climate, soil/water fertility) playing crucial roles (García‐Palacios et al., 2016). Additionally, subsurface zones in intermittent streams have been identified as hotspots for microbial decomposition during non-flow periods, highlighting the importance of sediment habitats in sustaining microbial activity and ecosystem functioning (Arias-Real et al., 2019).

6.2 Marine decomposition processes

In marine ecosystems, decomposition is similarly driven by diverse microbial communities, but the process is influenced by different environmental factors such as salinity gradients. Studies have shown that microbial communities, including archaea, bacteria, and fungi, assemble along salinity gradients and exhibit habitat-specific abundance patterns. This suggests that habitat filtering plays a significant role in maintaining distinct decomposer communities in freshwater, estuarine, and marine habitats (Ferrer et al., 2022). The decomposition of animal tissues, such as fish, also follows a strong successional pattern, with specific bacterial taxa dominating at different stages of decomposition. For instance, the putative pathogen Aeromonas veronii has been identified as a dominant member of the decomposition community in fish, peaking early in the process and contributing to nutrient cycling through the production of hemolytic toxins (Lobb et al., 2020).

6.3 Impact on water quality

The decomposition process in aquatic ecosystems has a significant impact on water quality. Microbial decomposers release nutrients and other compounds into the water as they break down organic matter, influencing biogeochemical cycles and overall ecosystem health. For instance, pathogens such as Escherichia coli in agricultural runoff can alter the composition and function of benthic microbial communities, affecting nutrient cycling and potentially leading to water quality issues (Bernabé et al., 2018). In aquatic ecosystems, carcasses or animal remains represent important nutrient and energy subsidies; their rapid decomposition and concentrated nutrient release can have lasting impacts on water quality and ecosystem structure (Benbow et al., 2020). The decomposition of decaying organic matter, such as animal carcasses, not only affects water quality but can also lead to localized oxygen depletion, forming "dead zones" (Figure 2). Additionally, the decomposition of plant litter in freshwater systems may be affected by climate change, such as warming, which can weaken the synergistic effects between decomposers and detritivores, ultimately impacting ecosystem function and nutrient flow (Bernabé et al., 2018).

Figure 1 New ICT based fertility management model in private dairy farm India as well as abroad

Figure 2 illustrates the connection between the heterotrophic resource pool and the biotic resource pool through death and decomposition processes. As microbial decomposers break down organic matter, they convert dead biomass (such as animal carcasses) into nutrients and energy, which are then reintegrated into the biotic resource pool through food web interactions. This process not only influences the flow of energy and nutrients in the water but may also lead to changes in the overall health of the ecosystem.

In summary, decomposition processes in freshwater and marine ecosystems are driven by complex interactions between microbial communities and environmental factors. These processes are crucial for nutrient cycling and maintaining ecosystem health, but they can also be influenced by human activities and environmental changes, significantly impacting water quality.

7 Decomposition and Climate Change

7.1 Influence of climate change on decomposition rates

Climate change significantly influences decomposition rates through various mechanisms, including temperature, moisture, and alterations in microbial community composition. For instance, studies have shown that decomposition responses to climate are highly dependent on the microbial community composition, which is not typically considered in terrestrial carbon models (Glassman et al., 2018). Bacterial communities, in particular, have been found to shift more rapidly in response to changing climates than fungi, indicating a need to reevaluate the roles of these microbial communities in decomposition processes. Additionally, climatic controls on decomposition are primary drivers of the global distribution of forest-tree symbioses, affecting nutrient access and carbon sequestration (Steidinger et al., 2019). The temperature sensitivity (Q10) of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition also varies with microbial community composition, with higher Q10 values observed in regions with K-selected microbial communities that dominate in warmer climates (Li et al., 2021).

7.2 Feedback mechanisms

The feedback mechanisms between decomposition and climate change are complex and multifaceted. Decomposition of plant litter, for example, can act as a feedback to climate change by influencing both ecosystem productivity and carbon dioxide flux from the soil (Suseela and Tharayil, 2018). The presence of large amounts of deadwood can affect greenhouse gas emissions, especially with increasing temperatures that could reduce the carbon sink capacity of boreal forests (Pastorelli et al., 2020). Moreover, microbial evolution in response to warming can reshape soil carbon feedbacks, potentially aggravating soil carbon loss or buffering it depending on temperature-dependent mortality rates. These feedbacks are critical for understanding and predicting ecosystem responses to climate change.

7.3 Mitigation strategies

Mitigation strategies to manage the impact of climate change on decomposition and ecosystem health include conserving microbial biodiversity and enhancing plant diversity. High microbial diversity has been shown to stabilize soil organic carbon decomposition responses to warming, particularly in subsoil environments (Xu et al., 2021). This suggests that maintaining microbial diversity is crucial for ecosystem stability under climate change. Additionally, increasing plant litter diversity can significantly enhance decomposition rates, comparable to the effects projected from climate warming (Mori et al., 2020). Therefore, promoting plant diversity and conserving microbial communities are essential strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change on decomposition processes and overall ecosystem health.

8 Human Impact on Microbial Decomposition

8.1 Land use changes

Land use changes significantly impact soil microbial communities and their decomposition activities. Different land use practices, such as agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation, alter soil properties and microbial dynamics. For example, land use changes significantly affect soil microbial communities and their decomposition activities. Agricultural expansion and urbanization lead to changes in soil structure, which in turn affect microbial decomposition rates (Figure 3). Pollutants such as pesticides and industrial waste may negatively impact microbial decomposition functions, reducing soil fertility and ecosystem health (Coban et al., 2022). In low-pH soils, increased land use intensity may improve decomposition rates by alleviating acid inhibition of microbial growth, whereas in near-neutral pH soils, microbial biomass and growth efficiency decline, leading to carbon loss (Malik et al., 2018). Moreover, converting forest lands to other land uses, such as agriculture, results in significant losses of soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial biomass, which are crucial for maintaining soil health and ecosystem functions (Padbhushan et al., 2022). Restoration measures like reforestation and the use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have shown potential to improve soil microbial communities and enhance soil carbon storage.

Figure 1 New ICT based fertility management model in private dairy farm India as well as abroad

Coban et al. (2022) study illustrates the types of land degradation and their impact on microbial communities. Land use changes can lead to a reduction in soil organic carbon and a decline in microbial biomass, which in turn affects decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. These changes not only alter soil structure but also weaken the overall health of the ecosystem.

8.2 Pollution and contaminants

Pollution, including chemical contaminants and microplastics, poses a significant threat to microbial decomposition processes. Chemical contamination from agricultural and urban activities can alter microbial community structures and their decomposition abilities. For example, streams contaminated with pesticides and pharmaceuticals exhibit higher microbial decay rates, although fungal biomass is reduced due to pesticide toxicity (Rossi et al., 2019). Similarly, microplastic pollution affects microbial communities by altering their structure and function, with certain bacteria and fungi showing potential for microplastic degradation (Yuan et al., 2020). Oil contamination also transforms soil microbial communities, enhancing the expression of enzymes involved in hydrocarbon degradation and stimulating pathways for xenobiotics biodegradation (Huang et al., 2021).

8.3 Conservation and restoration efforts

Conservation and restoration efforts aim to mitigate the negative impacts of human activities on microbial decomposition and ecosystem health. Strategies such as reforestation, the use of microbial inoculants, and the restoration of degraded lands have shown promise in enhancing soil microbial communities and their functions. For instance, soil microorganisms play a crucial role in restoring hydraulic functions in degraded soils, improving moisture content, and supporting plant growth (Coban et al., 2022). Additionally, adopting less-intensive land management practices can enhance microbial growth efficiency and carbon storage in soils (Malik et al., 2018). Restoration of soil carbon pools through sustainable land use practices can also contribute to climate change mitigation and improve soil quality (Padbhushan et al., 2022).

9 Conclusion

Microbial decomposition is a critical process in maintaining ecosystem health by facilitating the recycling of nutrients and organic matter. Research highlights the significant roles of both fungi and bacteria in decomposing various organic substrates, such as leaf litter, deadwood, and animal carcasses. Fungi, due to their powerful enzymatic capabilities, typically dominate in breaking down complex plant biomass, while bacteria play key roles in the later stages of decomposition and nitrogen cycling. The decomposition process is influenced by multiple factors, including substrate quality, environmental conditions, and the presence of other organisms. Microbial communities exhibit distinct successional patterns during decomposition, with specific taxa dominating at different stages, underscoring the diversity and complexity of microbial functions in ecosystems.

Microbial decomposition is essential for the functioning of ecosystems as it drives biogeochemical cycles, particularly carbon and nitrogen cycles. By breaking down organic matter, microbes release nutrients back into the soil, providing necessary support for plant uptake and promoting primary production. Additionally, this process helps maintain soil structure and fertility, influencing plant community dynamics and overall ecosystem productivity. Microbial decomposition also plays a role in regulating climate change by influencing greenhouse gas emissions, although under certain conditions, the decomposition of large amounts of organic matter can also lead to increased CO₂ emissions.

Future research should focus on several key areas to further our understanding of microbial decomposition and its impact on ecosystem health. Long-term studies are crucial for revealing the temporal dynamics of microbial communities and their functional roles throughout the decomposition process. Expanding research to include a wider range of ecosystems, such as tropical forests and arid regions, will provide a more comprehensive understanding of microbial decomposition across different environmental contexts. Investigating the interactions between different microbial taxa, as well as between microbes and other decomposers, can reveal synergistic effects in decomposition processes, enriching our knowledge. As climate change intensifies, assessing its impact on microbial decomposition, particularly how changes in temperature and moisture levels affect microbial activity and greenhouse gas emissions, is of utmost importance. Finally, focusing on the functional traits of microbial communities, such as enzyme production and nutrient cycling capabilities, will help more directly link microbial diversity to ecosystem processes.

Acknowledgments

We extend our thanks to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable feedback on this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Arcand M., Helgason B., and Lemke R., 2016, Microbial crop residue decomposition dynamics in organic and conventionally managed soils, Applied Soil Ecology, 107: 347-359.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APSOIL.2016.07.001

Arias-Real R., Muñoz I., Gutiérrez‐Cánovas C., Granados V., Lopez-Laseras P., and Menéndez M., 2019, Subsurface zones in intermittent streams are hotspots of microbial decomposition during the non-flow period, The Science of the Total Environment, 703: 135485.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135485

Baldrian P., 2017, Microbial activity and the dynamics of ecosystem processes in forest soils, Current Opinion in Microbiology, 37: 128-134.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2017.06.008

Bani A., Pioli S., Ventura M., Panzacchi P., Borruso L., Tognetti R., Tonon G., and Brusetti L., 2018, The role of microbial community in the decomposition of leaf litter and deadwood, Applied Soil Ecology, 126: 75-84

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APSOIL.2018.02.017

Benbow M., Receveur J., and Lamberti G., 2020, Death and decomposition in aquatic ecosystems, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 8: 17.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00017

Berbee M., James T., and Strullu‐Derrien C., 2017, Early diverging fungi: diversity and impact at the dawn of terrestrial life, Annual review of microbiology, 71: 41-60.

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-030117-020324

Bernabé T., Omena P., Santos V., Siqueira V., Oliveira V., and Romero G., 2018, Warming weakens facilitative interactions between decomposers and detritivores and modifies freshwater ecosystem functioning, Global Change Biology, 24: 3170-3186.

https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14109

Bhatnagar J., Peay K., and Treseder K., 2018, Litter chemistry influences decomposition through activity of specific microbial functional guilds, Ecological Monographs, 88(3): 429-444.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ECM.1303

Brabcová V., Nováková M., Davidova A., and Baldrian P., 2016, Dead fungal mycelium in forest soil represents a decomposition hotspot and a habitat for a specific microbial community, The New Phytologist, 210(4): 1369-1381.

https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13849

Burešová A., Burešová A., Kopecký J., Hrdinkova V., Kameník Z., Omelka M., and Sagova-Mareckova M., 2019, Succession of microbial decomposers is determined by litter type but site conditions drive decomposition rates, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 85(24): e01760-19.

https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01760-19

Camenzind T., Hättenschwiler S., Treseder K., Lehmann A., and Rillig M., 2018, Nutrient limitation of soil microbial processes in tropical forests, Ecological Monographs, 88: 4-21.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ECM.1279

Coban O., Deyn G., and Ploeg M., 2022, Soil microbiota as game-changers in restoration of degraded lands, Science, 375(6584): abe0725.

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe0725

Crowther T., Hoogen J., Wan J., Mayes M., Mayes M., Keiser A., Keiser A., Mo L., Averill C., Averill C., and Maynard D., 2019, The global soil community and its influence on biogeochemistry, Science, 365(6455): eaav0550.

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0550

Fenoy E., Casas J., Díaz-López M., Rubio J., Guil-Guerrero J., and Moyano‐López F., 2016, Temperature and substrate chemistry as major drivers of interregional variability of leaf microbial decomposition and cellulolytic activity in headwater streams, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 92: 11

https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiw169

Ferrer A., Heath K., Mosquera S., Suaréz Y., and Dalling J., 2022, Assembly of wood-inhabiting archaeal bacterial and fungal communities along a salinity gradient: common taxa are broadly distributed but locally abundant in preferred habitats, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 98(5): 1-13.

https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiac040

Figueroa L., Maran A., and Pelini S., 2021, Increasing temperatures reduce invertebrate abundance and slow decomposition, PLoS ONE, 16(11): e0259045.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259045

García‐Palacios P., Mckie B., Handa I., Frainer A., Frainer A., and Hättenschwiler S., 2016, The importance of litter traits and decomposers for litter decomposition: a comparison of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems within and across biomes, Functional Ecology, 30: 819-829.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12589

Glassman S., Weihe C., Li J., Albright M., Looby C., Martiny A., Treseder K., Allison S., and Martiny J., 2018, Decomposition responses to climate depend on microbial community composition, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115: 11994-11999.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811269115

Gora E., Lucas J., and Yanoviak S., 2019, Microbial composition and wood decomposition rates vary with microclimate from the ground to the canopy in a tropical forest, Ecosystems, 22: 1206-1219.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-019-00359-9

Gu L., Wu J.Y., and Hua Z.L., 2021, Benthic prokaryotic microbial community assembly and biogeochemical potentials in E. coli-stressed aquatic ecosystems during plant decomposition, Environmental pollution, 275: 116643.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116643

Hicks L., Lajtha K., and Rousk J., 2021, Nutrient limitation may induce microbial mining for resources from persistent soil organic matter, Ecology, 102(6): e03328.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3328

Huang L., Ye J., Jiang K., Wang Y., and Li Y., 2021, Oil contamination drives the transformation of soil microbial communities: co-occurrence pattern metabolic enzymes and culturable hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 225: 112740.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112740

Jia X., Zhong Y., Liu J., Zhu G., Shangguan Z., and Yan W., 2020, Effects of nitrogen enrichment on soil microbial characteristics: from biomass to enzyme activities, Geoderma, 366: 114256.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114256

Li H., Yang S., Semenov M., Yao F., Ye J., Bu R., Ma R., Lin J., Kurganova I., Wang X., Deng Y., Kravchenko I., Jiang Y., and Kuzyakov Y., 2021, Temperature sensitivity of SOM decomposition is linked with a K‐selected microbial community, Global Change Biology, 27(12): 2763-2779.

https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15593

Li Y., Nie C., Liu Y.H., Du W., and He P., 2019, Soil microbial community composition closely associates with specific enzyme activities and soil carbon chemistry in a long-term nitrogen fertilized grassland, The Science of the Total Environment, 654: 264-274.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.031

Lobb B., Hodgson R., Lynch M., Mansfield M., Cheng J., Charles T., Neufeld J., Craig P., and Doxey A., 2020, Time series resolution of the fish necrobiome reveals a decomposer succession involving toxigenic bacterial pathogens, mSystems, 5(2): e00145-20.

https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00145-20

Malik A., Puissant J., Buckeridge K., Goodall T., Jehmlich N., Chowdhury S., Gweon H., Peyton J., Mason K., Agtmaal M., Blaud A., Clark I., Whitaker J., Pywell R., Ostle N., Gleixner G., and Griffiths R., 2018, Land use driven change in soil pH affects microbial carbon cycling processes, Nature Communications, 9: 3591.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05980-1

Manzoni S., Chakrawal A., and Ledder G., 2023, Decomposition rate as an emergent property of optimal microbial foraging, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11: 1094269.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1094269

Maron P., Sarr A., Kaisermann A., Lévêque J., Mathieu O., Guigue J., Karimi B., Bernard L., Dequiedt S., Terrat S., Chabbi A., and Ranjard L., 2018, High microbial diversity promotes soil ecosystem functioning, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 84(9): e02738-17.

https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02738-17

Mason A., McKee-Zech H., Hoeland K., Davis M., Campagna S., Steadman D., and DeBruyn J., 2022, Body mass index (BMI) impacts soil chemical and microbial response to human decomposition, mSphere, 7(5): e00325-22.

https://doi.org/10.1128/msphere.00325-22

Mason A., Taylor L., and DeBruyn J., 2023, Microbial ecology of vertebrate decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, FEMS microbiology ecology, 99(2): fiad006.

https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiad006

Metcalf J., Xu Z., Weiss S., Lax S., Treuren W., Hyde E., Song S., Amir A., Larsen P., Sangwan N., Haarmann D., Humphrey G., Ackermann G., Thompson L., Lauber C., Bibat A., Nicholas C., Gebert M., Petrosino J., Reed S., Gilbert J., Lynne A., Bucheli S., Carter D., and Knight R., 2016, Microbial community assembly and metabolic function during mammalian corpse decomposition, Science, 351: 158-162.

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad2646

Mori A., Cornelissen J., Fujii S., Okada K., Okada K., and Isbell F., 2020, A meta-analysis on decomposition quantifies afterlife effects of plant diversity as a global change driver, Nature Communications, 11.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18296-w

Padbhushan R., Kumar U., Sharma S., Rana D., Kumar R., Kohli A., Kumari P., Parmar B., Kaviraj M., Sinha A., Annapurna K., and Gupta V., 2022, Impact of Land-Use Changes on Soil Properties and Carbon Pools in India: A Meta-analysis, 9: 794866.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.794866

Pastorelli R., Paletto A., Agnelli A., Lagomarsino A., and Meo I., 2020, Microbial communities associated with decomposing deadwood of downy birch in a natural forest in Khibiny Mountains (Kola Peninsula Russian Federation, Forest Ecology and Management, 455: 117643.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117643

Petraglia A., Cacciatori C., Chelli S., Fenu G., Calderisi G., Gargano D., Abeli T., Orsenigo S., and Carbognani M., 2018, Litter decomposition: effects of temperature driven by soil moisture and vegetation type, Plant and Soil, 435: 187-200.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-018-3889-x

Pimentão A., Pascoal C., Castro B., and Cássio F., 2019, Fungistatic effect of agrochemical and pharmaceutical fungicides on non-target aquatic decomposers does not translate into decreased fungi- or invertebrate-mediated decomposition, The Science of the Total Environment, 712: 135676.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135676

Purahong W., Wubet T., Lentendu G., Schloter M., Pecyna M., Kapturska D., Hofrichter M., Krüger D., and Buscot F., 2016, Life in leaf litter: novel insights into community dynamics of bacteria and fungi during litter decomposition, Molecular Ecology, 25(16): 4059-4074.

https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13739

Pérez J., Ferreira V., Graça M., and Boyero L., 2021, Litter quality is a stronger driver than temperature of early microbial decomposition in oligotrophic streams: a microcosm study, Microbial Ecology, 82: 897-908.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-021-01858-w

Raczka N., Piñeiro J., Tfaily M., Chu R., Lipton M., Paša-Tolić L., Morrissey E., and Brzostek E., 2021, Interactions between microbial diversity and substrate chemistry determine the fate of carbon in soil, Scientific Reports, 11: 19320.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97942-9

RossiF., Mallet C., Portelli C., Donnadieu F., Bonnemoy F., and Artigas J., 2019, Stimulation or inhibition: Leaf microbial decomposition in streams subjected to complex chemical contamination, The Science of the Total Environment, 648: 1371-1383.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.197

Sierra C., Malghani S., and Loescher H., 2017, Interactions among temperature moisture and oxygen concentrations in controlling decomposition rates in a boreal forest soil, Biogeosciences, 14: 703-710.

https://doi.org/10.5194/BG-14-703-2017

Sierra C., Trumbore S., Davidson E., Vicca S., and Janssens I., 2015, Sensitivity of decomposition rates of soil organic matter with respect to simultaneous changes in temperature and moisture, Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 7: 335-356.

https://doi.org/10.1002/2014MS000358

Simarmata R., Widowati T., Nurjanah L.,  N., and Lekatompessy S., 2021, The role of microbes in organic material decomposition and formation of compost bacterial communities, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 762: 012044.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012044

Steidinger B., Crowther T., Liang J., Nuland M., Werner G., Reich P., Nabuurs G., de-Miguel S., Zhou M., Picard N., Hérault B., Zhao X., Zhang C., Routh D., Peay K., and Marcon E., 2019, Climatic controls of decomposition drive the global biogeography of forest-tree symbioses, Nature, 569: 404-408.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1128-0

Suseela V., and Tharayil N., 2018, Decoupling the direct and indirect effects of climate on plant litter decomposition: Accounting for stress‐induced modifications in plant chemistry, Global Change Biology, 24: 1428-1451.

https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13923

Tláskal V., Brabcová V., Větrovský T., Jomura M., López-Mondéjar R., Monteiro L., Saraiva J., Human Z., Cajthaml T., Rocha U., and Baldrian P., 2021, Complementary roles of wood-inhabiting fungi and bacteria facilitate deadwood decomposition, mSystems, 6(1): e01078-20.

https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.01078-20

Wang D., Nianpeng H., Wang Q., Lü Y., Wang Q., Xu Z., and Zhu J., 2016, Effects of temperature and moisture on soil organic matter decomposition along elevation gradients on the Changbai Mountains Northeast China, Pedosphere, 26: 399-407.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(15)60052-2

Wang Q., Huang Q., Wang J., Khan M., Guo G., Liu Y., Hu S., Jin F., Wang J., and Yu Y., 2021, Dissolved organic carbon drives nutrient cycling via microbial community in paddy soil, Chemosphere, 285: 131472.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131472

Xu M., Li X.L., Kuyper T., Xu M., Li X.L., and Zhang J.L., 2021, High microbial diversity stabilizes the responses of soil organic carbon decomposition to warming in the subsoil on the Tibetan Plateau, Global Change Biology, 27(10): 2061-2075.

https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15553

Yang Y., Chen X.L., Liu L.X., Li T., Dou Y.X., Qiao J.B., Wang Y.Q., An S.S., and Chang S., 2022, Nitrogen fertilization weakens the linkage between soil carbon and microbial diversity: a global meta‐analysis, Global Change Biology, 28(21): 6446-6461.

https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16361

Yuan J., Ma J., Sun Y., Zhou T., Zhao Y., and Yu F., 2020, Microbial degradation and other environmental aspects of microplastics/plastics, The Science of the Total Environment, 715: 136968.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136968

Zhou Y., Biro A., Wong M., Batterman S., and Staver A., 2022, Fire decreases soil enzyme activities and reorganizes microbially-mediated nutrient cycles: a meta-analysis, Ecology, 103(11): e3807.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3807